The Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, 35 kilometres east of Xian in Shaanxi Province, contains the burial complex of Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE), the ruler who unified China under a single administration for the first time. The three excavated pits nearby hold approximately 8,000 terracotta soldiers, 130 chariots, and 670 horses arranged in military formation. The main burial mound, a 76-metre earthen pyramid, has never been opened.
The terracotta army: scale, craft and the unresolved question of the faces 35 km east of Xian city centre
The discovery came in March 1974, when farmers drilling a water well in Lintong County struck the top of a clay head at approximately 1.5 metres depth. Excavation revealed Pit 1, a vaulted underground corridor measuring 230 metres by 62 metres and containing six rows of terracotta soldiers in battle formation — infantry, archers, and charioteers — facing east, toward the direction from which the Qin state’s former enemies lay. Pit 2, found shortly afterward, contained a mixed force of cavalry units and crossbowmen. Pit 3 is interpreted as a command headquarters, with 68 high-ranking figures arranged around a war chariot.
The total count — approximately 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots, and 670 horses — reflects the organisational scale of the Qin military that conquered the six rival states between 230 and 221 BCE. Each soldier stands at roughly 1.8 metres on average, with officers and generals made proportionally taller according to rank. The figures were mass-produced using a modular system: standardised body parts were made in moulds and assembled, then individual details — hairstyles, facial features, armour configurations — were added by hand before firing. This is why no two faces appear identical to a casual observer, though scholars debate whether the variety represents genuine individualism or a finite set of face types combined in different configurations.
Original colouring is one of the most significant and irreversible losses in the history of archaeological excavation. When the figures were made, every surface was painted: red and green lacquer over a base coat of primer, producing vivid uniforms in pink, purple, green, and blue. Exposure to air causes the pigment to curl and flake within minutes; early excavations in the 1970s removed figures before conservation methods existed to arrest this process. Current excavation protocols leave sections unexcavated until technology catches up. Small sections of surviving paint remain visible on figures extracted more recently.
The bronze weapons found in the pits were functional, not symbolic. Spearheads, swords, crossbow triggers, and arrowheads were recovered in large quantities, many still sharp after more than 2,200 years. Chemical analysis has confirmed that the bronze was treated with chromium — a corrosion-resistant coating that was not independently developed in Western metallurgy until the early 20th century. Whether this reflects deliberate anti-corrosion technology or an accidental by-product of the smelting process using chromium-rich local materials remains an open question in materials science.
The sealed burial mound and what historical sources say lies inside 1.5 km west of the terracotta pits
The burial mound itself — a truncated earthen pyramid visible from a distance — measures approximately 350 metres on each side at its base and stands 76 metres tall after more than two millennia of erosion from an original estimated height of around 115 metres. Chinese authorities made the decision not to excavate the mound in the current era, citing the near-certainty that existing technology cannot prevent the degradation of contents once exposed. The paint problem in the terracotta pits is the primary cautionary example.
The only substantial textual account of the burial’s interior comes from Sima Qian, who wrote his Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) roughly 90 years after the burial took place, in the early Han dynasty. Sima Qian describes an underground palace where the ceiling was inlaid with pearls to represent stars and constellations, the floor was mapped with rivers of flowing mercury representing the Yellow River and the Yangtze, and automatic crossbow mechanisms were installed to kill intruders. The mausoleum was staffed for eternity: 100 concubines were reportedly buried alive with the emperor, though historians debate whether this refers to living women, clay substitutes, or a convention in the source text that has been misread.
In 2016, geophysical surveys published in the journal Archaeometry confirmed soil mercury concentrations up to 100 times the normal background level in the soil around the mound — a direct corroboration of Sima Qian’s mercury rivers, detected without any excavation. Soil resistance scans have also mapped the outline of underground chambers consistent with the palace description. The mound is expected to remain closed for at least several more decades. When and whether it will be opened is a political and scientific question that Chinese archaeologists have consistently declined to frame as imminent.
Qin Shi Huang’s significance beyond the burial is difficult to overstate. In eleven years as emperor (221–210 BCE) he standardised the Chinese writing system, currency, weights and measures, axle widths for road compatibility, and built approximately 8,000 kilometres of roads. He also initiated early construction of what would become the Great Wall. He died after ingesting mercury pills prepared by court alchemists as an immortality treatment — an irony the historical record preserves without editorial comment.
Practical information
Xian is served by Xian Xianyang International Airport with direct routes to most major Chinese cities and several international destinations. High-speed rail connects Xian North Station to Beijing (approximately 4 hours 30 minutes), Shanghai (6 hours), and Chengdu (1 hour 40 minutes). The terracotta warrior site is 35 kilometres east of Xian city centre; bus 306 from Xian Railway Station covers the route in approximately 50–70 minutes depending on traffic. Taxis and private hire vehicles are faster.
The site is open year-round. Pit 1 is covered by a large hangar structure and can be visited in any weather. The best visiting months are March to May and September to November; July and August bring heavy visitor numbers and temperatures above 35°C. A combined ticket covers all three pits and the on-site museum. The burial mound itself is accessible on foot or by electric shuttle from the main museum complex. Famen Temple, 110 kilometres west and housing a finger-bone relic of the Buddha within a Tang-dynasty crypt complex discovered in 1987, is feasible as a half-day addition from Xian.
Frequently Asked Questions
Are all 8,000 faces of the terracotta soldiers truly unique?
The claim that every face is different is commonly repeated but requires qualification. Archaeologists have identified a finite number of distinct face moulds — estimates range from eight to over a dozen primary types — which were modified by hand-applied details such as beard configurations, eyebrow shapes, and ear position before firing. The result is that no two figures are identical in the strict sense, because the handwork introduces variation even when the same base mould was used. However, the figures were not portraits of real individuals, and the process was not designed to produce 8,000 unique biographical representations. The diversity of appearance is real, but it reflects a production system combining standardisation with individualised finishing rather than any attempt at portraiture. The idea that every soldier represents a specific person in the Qin army is a persistent popular claim with no supporting evidence in the archaeological or historical record.
Why has China not excavated the main burial mound?
The decision is formally based on conservation technology. The terracotta figures in the pits lost their original polychrome paint within minutes of exposure to air during early excavations, and current methods cannot fully prevent this. The burial mound is expected to contain far more complex and fragile materials — organic textiles, wooden structures, lacquerware, and possibly the mercury features described by Sima Qian — that would be equally or more vulnerable. Chinese archaeological authorities have stated that excavation will begin only when preservation technology can guarantee protection of the contents. There is also a legal dimension: China’s Law on the Protection of Cultural Relics imposes a general prohibition on proactive excavation of imperial tombs, reserving intervention for rescue situations such as construction damage or flooding. The mound is also considered a site of significant ancestral respect, and political consideration of when and how to open it carries weight beyond the purely technical.
What other UNESCO sites are within reach of Xian?
Xian is positioned at the eastern anchor of the Silk Road and within reasonable distance of several inscribed sites. The Great Wall includes sections that extend westward into Gansu Province; Jiayuguan Fort, the formal western terminus of the Ming Great Wall, is approximately 1,100 kilometres west — accessible by high-speed train in around 5 hours from Xian to Zhangye and onward. The Longmen Grottoes at Luoyang, a UNESCO-listed Buddhist cave complex with 2,345 caves and 100,000 images, are approximately 400 kilometres east, roughly 2 hours by high-speed train. Wudang Mountains (UNESCO 1994) — a Taoist sacred site with Ming-dynasty temples — are approximately 550 kilometres southeast of Xian. For visitors with more time, the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang, another UNESCO site on the same Silk Road corridor, are accessible by train or flight from Xian in under 3 hours by air.
Sources
- S1 — UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor (listed 1987). https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/441/
- S2 — Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum — official site. https://www.bmy.com.cn/
Spotted an error? Write to editorial@culturalheritageonline.com and we correct it the same day.
